Internal Combustion engine

Aniinternalicombustionienginei(ICE) is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressureigases producediby combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine. The force is applied typicallyito pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy.

The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859 and the first modern internal combustion engine was created in 1876 by Nikolaus Otto.

The term internal combustioniengine usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the six-stroke pistoniengine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously described.Firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine.

Internal combustion engines are quite different from external combustion engines, such as steam or Stirling engines, in which the energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, heated in a boiler. ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many stationary applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft, and boats.

Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel fuel or fuel oil. There's a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from either fossil fuels or renewable energy.

Reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives (some are electrical but most use Diesel engines). Rotary engines of the Wankel design are used in some automobiles, aircraft and motorcycles.

ICEs drive some of the large electric generators that power electrical grids. They are found in the form of combustion turbines in combined cycle power plants with a typical electrical output in the range of 100 MW to 1 GW. The high temperature exhaust is used to boil and superheat water to run a steam turbine. Thus, the efficiency is higher because more energy is extracted from the fuel than what could be extracted by the combustion turbine alone. In combined cycle power plants efficiencies in the range of 50% to 60% are typical. In a smaller scale Diesel generators are used for backup power and for providing electrical power to areas not connected to an electric grid.

Small engines (usually 2‐stroke gasoline engines) are a common power source for lawnmowers, string trimmers, chain saws, leafblowers, pressure washers, snowmobiles, jet skis, outboard motors, mopeds, and motorcycles

Where very high power-to-weight ratios are required, internal combustion engines appear in the form of combustion turbines or Wankel engines. Powered aircraft typically uses an ICE which may be a reciprocating engine. Airplanes can instead use jet engines and helicopters can instead employ turboshafts; both of which are types of turbines. In addition to providing propulsion, airliners may employ a separate ICE as an auxiliary power unit. Wankel engines are fitted to many unmanned aerial vehicles.

The Abbé Hautefeuille described in 1678, an engine for raising water, in which the motive power was obtained by burning gunpowder in a cylinder and cooling the remaining gases with water. The idea was similar to that expressed in the early forms of the steam engine, but Hautefeuille does not appear to have preformed any actual experiments. The same idea was suggested by Huygens in 1680, but experiments made by him and later by Denis Papinwere not attended by success and were abandoned, though they are interesting as representing the first actual attempts at the building of internal-combustion engines.

A long period of inaction followed. The discovery of the distillation of gas from coal and the demonstration, by Murdock in 1792, of the application of coal gas for lighting purposes roused new interest in the subject. The introduction of the steam engine for commercial purposes about this time was also a powerful incentive, though for many decades the steam engine was too firmly intrenched and fitted the existing conditions too well to afford much opportunity for competition. About 1791 John Barber explained in a patent how a wheel with vanes could be driven by the released pressure of an orifice close to the vanes. In the century and a quarter that have elapsed since that day, no economical gas turbine has been constructed.

The first internal-combustion engine, according to our modern ideas, was that of Robert Street, patented in England in 1794. In this the bottom of a cylinder was heated by fire and a small quantity of tar or turpentine was projected into the hot part of the cylinder, forming a vapor. The rising of the piston sucked in a quantity of air to form the explosion mixture and also flame for ignition. The cycle was that which was used later by Lenoir in the first commercially successful engine. About 1800 Phillippe Lebon patented in France an engine using compressed air, compressed gas and electricity for ignition. Some authorities believe that his early death retarded the development of the internal-combustion engine half a century, as all of the features mentioned are necessary to the highly efficient engines of today, though they did not come into use for three-quarters of a century after his death.

The next engine to attain any considerable prominence was that of Samuel Brown, who secured several patents in England about 1825. His engine did not represent an advance, since the old ideas of Huygens were employed instead of the advanced ideas of Street. The success of the atmospheric steam engines was probably responsible for this. Brown's engine consisted of a number of large chambers, in which the hot gases produced by flame were cooled by the injection of water, thus forming a partial vacuum. The working pistons, in cylinders adjacent to the large chambers, were operated by atmospheric pressure, all pistons being connected to the same crankshaft, as shown in Fig. 1. Since the burning did not occur in the working cylinder, the engine can scarcely be called an internal-combustion engine in the accepted sense of the term. The inventor appears to have been a man of considerable force, and a number of his engines were built for pumping and for driving carriages and boats. In 1833, W. L. Wright patented in England, the engine illustrated in Fig. 2. The gas and air were supplied by separate pumps to a working cylinder. The charge was contained in the spherical bulbs near the ends of the cylinder, ignition occurring while the piston was at the end of the stroke. The engine was double acting, water jacketed, with poppet exhaust valves and a fly-ball governor. It represented a great advance in design and was probably built, though no records of its performance are known to exist.

In 1838 William Barnett patented in England an engine which was an advance upon preceding types in that country. It compressed the gas and air separately, igniting the mixture when the piston was at the end of its stroke. The third engine described by this inventor is shown in Fig. 3, and is interesting because it embodies several features of the modern two-cycle engine. In the figure the piston is supposed to be moving upward, compressing a mixture of gas and air. Ignition occurs when the piston has reached its highest position, and the piston driven down, expansion occurring until the piston passes the exhaust port at the middle of the cylinder. During the latter half of the stroke the pumps are forcing gas and air into space below the piston, The compression being completed by the working piston and an explosion occurring when the piston reaches its lowest position. One of the interesting features of this engine was the use of spongy platinum for ignition, though Barnett also devised an exceedingly ingenious igniting cock of burning gas jets.

The well known hot-tube method of ignition, which later became popular and has only in comparatively recent times been supplanted by electric ignition, was patented in America by Drake, and later, in 1855, by Newton, in England. The engine of Barsanti-Matteucci Engine, patented in 1857, is interesting because it illustrates a type of machine that was the first to achieve a real commercial success, though that good fortune din not happen to its Italian inventors. It is illustrated in Fig. 4. Gas and air were exploded under the piston, which was driven upward, finally coming to a rest when all of the work of the explosion had been done. The piston, descending under the pressure of atmosphere, did the work. Lenoir, of France, patented in 1860, the first engine to attain considerable use. In general, it resembled a double-acting steam engine, with a slide valve for the admission and another for the exhaust. This engine was well advertised and attained considerable use, though its economy was not very good. It was deemed of sufficient merit, however, to secure awards from the Exposition of London in 1862, of Paris in 1867, and Vienna in 1873. The improvement on the Lenoir engine by Hugon brought its inventor some prominence, but its success was short lived, as the new Otto-Langen free-piston engine, which was exhibited at the Paris Exposition in 1867, Carried all before it and held command of the market for many years, during which time a large number were built.

The Lenoir engine admitted gas and air for part of the stroke, after which the explosion occurred and then an expansion. An indicator card for this engine is shown in Fig. 5. All of these engines, it will be noted, were non-compression engines. In 1860, Beau de Rochas stated the conditions required for the efficiency of an internal-combustion engine as follows:

1) The greatest volume of the cylinder having a given surface of periphery.

2) Highest possible velocity of motion.

3) Greatest possible expansion.

4) Greatest possible pressure at commencement of the expansion.

Beau de Rochas also described the four strokes, which makes the cycle of what is known as the four-cycle engine.

To the American the most interesting part of the development of internal-combustion engines is that played by Brayton about 1872 to 1874. This engine is shown in Fig. 5. The Brayton engine was to some extent the precursor of the present Diesel engine. The mixture of gas and air burned at constant pressure and gave a card resembling somewhat that of the steam engine. This engine was manufactured for a while, but was not able to compete with the Otto-Langen free-piston engine in economy. It was adapted for both gas and petroleum.

The well-known Otto engine was invented by Dr. Nicholas Otto, of Germany, and was patented in this country in 1877. It follows the cycle that has been described by Beau de Rochas , now known as the four-cycle, or sometimes as the Otto cycle. The engine was first known as the Otto-Silent, to distinguish it from the free-piston engine, which was rather noisy. It immediately established the internal-combustion engine on a firm footing, and the engines of the four-cycle type sold today show merely minor improvements. The sliding valve on 1876 has been replaced by poppet valves, and the flame ignition has been replaced by the electric spark. Otherwise, the Otto cycle of 1876 has persisted and at this time thousands of them are being manufactured.

The development of the Diesel engine for oil began about 1894. As has been stated, this engine is similar to the Brayton. Air is compressed to about 500 pounds pressure and oil is sprayed into this highly compressed air. It burns spontaneously at nearly constant pressure, which is followed by a long expansion. The extremely high temperature of the air previous to the injection of the fuel, and the high temperature maintained during this injection, together with the long expansion, give the engine the highest efficiency of any thermal motor. The development of the Diesel engine has been so recent that it is not necessary to elaborate upon it. At this time, it is being manufactured in all of the European countries and in America, and there is a tendency on the part of many of the American manufacturers who are bringing out new engines to adopt the features of the Diesel. The gas turbine is as yet in the experimental stage. A number have been built and are of course, extremely interesting. The success of the steam turbine has encouraged many to believe that the gas turbine will achieve similar success. Nothing of recent development can be said to encourage this view. The difficulties in the way of successful gas turbines are very great, and while some turbines have been designed and run, none of them has shown an efficiency at all comparable to that of ordinary four-cycle engines.

 

Read More

External Combustion engines

The difference between internal and external combustion engines, as their names

suggest, is that the former burn their fuel within the power cylinder, but the latter use

their fuel to heat a gas or a vapour through the walls of an external chamber, and the

heated gas or vapour is then transferred to the power cylinder. External combustion

engines therefore require a heat

exchanger, or boiler to take in heat, and as their fuels

are burnt externally under steady conditions, they can in principle use any fuel that can

burn, including agricultural residues or waste materials

There are two main families of external combustion engines; steam engines which rely

on expanding steam (or occasionally some other vapour) to drive a mechanism; or

Stirling engines which use hot air (or some other hot gas). The use of both technologies

reached their zeniths around 1900 and have declined almost to extinction since.

However a brief description is worthwhile, since:

i. they were successfully and widely used in the past for pumping water;

ii. they both have the merit of being well suited to the use of low cost fuels such as

coal, peat and biomass;

iii. attempts to update and revive them are taking place.

and therefore they may re-appear as viable options in the longer term future.

The primary disadvantage of e.c. engines is that a large area of heat exchanger is

necessary to transmit heat into the working cylinder(s) and also to reject heat at the end

of the cycle. As a result, e.c. engines are generally bulky and expensive to construct

compared with i.c. engines. Also, since they are no longer generally manufactured they

do not enjoy the economies of mass-production available to i.e. engines. They also will

not start so quickly or conveniently as an i.c. engine; because it takes time to light the

fire and heat the machine to its working temperature.

Due to their relatively poor power/weight ratio and also the worse energy/weight ratio of

solid fuels, the kinds of applications where steam or Stirling engines are most likely to be

acceptable are for static applications such as as irrigation water pumping in areas where

petroleum fuels are not readily available but low cost solid fuels are. On the positive

side, e.c. engines have the advantage of having the potential to be much longer-lasting

than i.c. engines (100 year old steam railway locomotives are relatively easy to keep in

working order, but it is rare for i.c. engines to be used more than 20 years or so. E.c.

engines are also significantly quieter and free of vibrations than i.c. engines. The level of

skill needed for maintenance may also be lower, although the amount of time spent will

be higher, particularly due to the need for cleaning out the furnace.

Modern engineering techniques promise that any future steam or Stirling engines could

benefit from features not available over 60 years ago when they were last in general

use. Products incorporating these new developments are not yet on the market, but R&D

is in hand in various countries on a limited scale; however it will probably be some years

before a new generation of multi-fuel Stirling or steam powered pumps become

generally available.

Steam Engines

Only a limited number of small steam engines are available commercially at present;

most are for general use or for powering small pleasure boats. A serious attempt to

develop a 2kW steam engine for use in remote areas was made by the engine

designers, Ricardos, in the UK during the 1950s . That development was

possibly premature and failed, but there is currently a revival of interest in developing

power sources that can run on biomass-based fuels. However, small steam engines have always suffered from their need to meet quite

stringent safety requirements to avoid accidents due to boiler explosions, and most

countries have regulations requiring the certification of steam engine boilers, which is a

serious, but necessary, inhibiting factor.

The principle of the steam engine is illustrated in Fig. 102. Fuel is burnt in a furnace and

the hot gases usually pass through tubes surrounded by water (fire tube boilers). Steam

is generated under pressure; typically 5 to 10 atmospheres (or 5-10bar). A safety valve

is provided to release steam when the pressure becomes too high so as to avoid the risk

of an explosion. High pressure steam is admitted to a power cylinder through a valve,

where it expands against a moving piston to do work while its pressure drops. The inlet

valve closes at a certain point, but the steam usually continues expanding until it is close

to atmospheric pressure, when the exhaust valve opens to allow the piston to push the

cooled and expanded steam out to make way for a new intake of high pressure steam.

The valves are linked to the drive mechanism so as to open or close automatically at the

correct moment. The period of opening of the inlet valve can be adjusted by the operator

to vary the speed and power of the engine.

In the simplest types of engine the steam is exhausted to the atmosphere. This however

is wasteful of energy, because by cooling and condensing the exhausted steam the

pressure can be reduced to a semi-vacuum and this allows more energy to be extracted

from a given throughput of steam and thereby significantly improves the efficiency.

When a condenser is not used, such as with steam railway locomotives, the jet of

exhaust steam is utilised to create a good draught for the furnace by drawing the hot

gases up the necessarily short smoke stack. Condensing steam engines, on the other

hand, either need a high stack to create a draught by natural convection, or they need

fans or blowers.

Steam pumps can easily include a condenser, since the pumped water can serve to cool

the condenser. According to Mead, (and others) the typical gain in overall efficiency

from using a condenser can exceed 30% extra output per unit of fuel used. Condensed

steam collects as water at the bottom of the condenser and is then pumped at sufficient

pressure to inject it back into the boiler by a small water feed pump, which is normally

driven off the engine. A further important advantage of a condensing steam engine is

that recirculating the same water reduces the problems of scaling and corrosion that

commonly occur when a continuous throughput of fresh water is used. A clean and

mineral-free water supply is normally necessary for non-condensing steam engines to

prolong the life of the boiler.

The most basic steam engine is about 5% efficient (steam energy to mechanical shaft

energy - the furnace and boiler efficiency of probably between 30 and 60% needs to be

compounded with this to give an overall efficiency as a prime-mover in the 1.5 to 3%

range). More sophisticated engines are around 10% efficient, while the very best reach

15%. When the boiler and furnace efficiencies (30-60%) plus the pump (40-80%) and

pipework (40-90%) are compounded, we obtain system efficiencies for steam piston

engine powered pumps in the 0.5 to 4.5% range, which is worse, but not a lot worse

than for small s.i. internal combustion engines pumping systems, but allows the use of

non-petroleum fuels and offers greater durability.

Stirling Engines

This type of engine was originally developed by the Rev. Robert Stirling in 1816. Tens of

thousands of small Stirling engines were used in the late nineteenth and early twentieth

century, mainly in the USA but also in Europe. They were applied to all manner of small

scale power purposes, including water pumping. In North America they particularly saw

service on the "new frontier"; which at that time suffered all the problems of a developing

country in terms of lack of energy resources, etc.

Rural electrification and the rise of the small petrol engine during and after the 1920s

overtook the Stirling engine, but their inherent multi-fuel capability, robustness and

durability make them an attractive concept for re-development for use in remote areas in

the future and certain projects are being initiated to this end. Various types of directaction

Stirling-piston water pumps have been developed since the 1970s by Beale and

Sunpower Inc. in the USA, and some limited development of new engines, for example

by IT Power in the UK with finance from GTZ of West Germany is continuing.

Stirling engines use pressure changes caused by alternately heating and cooling an

enclosed mass of air (or other gas). The Stirling engine has the potential to be more

efficient than the steam engine, and also it avoids the boiler explosion and scaling

hazards of steam engines. An important attribute is that the Stirling engine is almost

unique as a heat engine in that it can be made to work quite well at fractional

horsepower sizes where both i.c. engines and steam engines are relatively inefficient.

This of course makes it of potential interest for small scale irrigation, although at present

it is not a commercially available option.

To explain the Stirling cycle rigorously is a complex task. But in simple terms, a displacer

is used to move the enclosed supply of air from a hot chamber to a cold chamber via a

regenerator. When most of the air is in the hot end of the enclosed system, the internal

pressure will be high and the gas is allowed to expand against a power piston, and

conversely, when the displacer moves the air to the cool end, the pressure drops and

the power piston returns. The gas moves from the hot end to the cold end through a

regenerator which has a high thermal capacity combined with a lot of surface area, so

that the hot air being drawn from the power cylinder cools progressively on its way

through the regenerator, giving up its heat in the process; then when cool air travels

back to the power cylinder ready for the next power stroke the heat is returned from the

regenerator matrix to preheat the air prior to reaching the power cylinder. The

regenerator is vital to achieving good efficiency from a Stirling engine. It often consists of

a mass of metal gauze through which air can readily pass.

Some insight into the mechanics of a ' small Stirling engine can be gained ,

which shows a 1900 vintage Rider-Ericsson engine. The displacer cylinder projects at its

lower end into a small furnace. When the displacer descends it pushes all the air through

the re generator into the water cooled volume near the power cylinder and the pressure

in the system drops, then as the displacer rises and pulls air back into the hot space, the

pressure rises and is used to push the power piston upwards on the working stroke. The

displacer is driven off the drive shaft and runs 90° out.of phase with the power piston. An

idea of the potential value of engines such as this can be gained from records of their

performance; for example, the half horsepower Rider-Ericsson engine could raise

2.7m3

/hr of water through 20m; it ran at about 140 rpm (only) and consumed about 2kg

of coke fuel per hour. All that was needed to keep it going was for the fire to be

occasionally stoked, rather like a domestic stove, and for a drop of oil to be dispensed

onto the plain bearings every hour or so.

Read More

The history of Tesla

Tesla Motors, Inc. is an American automotive and energy storage company that designs, manufactures, and sells electric cars, electric vehicle powertrain components, and battery products. Tesla Motors is a public company that trades on the NASDAQ stock exchange under the symbol TSLA. During the first quarter of 2013, Tesla posted profits for the first time in its history.

Tesla first gained widespread attention following their production of the Tesla Roadster, the first fully electric sports car. The company's second vehicle is the Model S, a fully electric luxury sedan, which was followed by the Model X, a crossover. Its next vehicle is the Model 3. Global Model S sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in December 2015, three and a half years after its introduction. The Model S was the world's best selling plug-in electric vehicle in 2015. As of June 2016, the Model S ranks as the world's second best selling plug-in car in history after the Nissan Leaf. As of 30 June 2016, Tesla Motors has sold almost 140,000 electric cars worldwide since delivery of its first Tesla Roadster in 2008.

Tesla manufactures equipment for home and office battery charging, and has installed a network of high-powered Superchargers across North America, Europe and Asia. The company also operates a Destination Charging program, under which shops, restaurants and other venues are offered fast chargers for their customers.

CEO Elon Musk has said that he envisions Tesla Motors as an independent automaker, aimed at eventually offering electric cars at prices affordable to the average consumer. Pricing for the Tesla Model 3 in the United States, slated to begin retail deliveries by the end of 2017, will start at US$35,000 before any government incentives.

Tesla Motors is named after electrical engineer and physicist Nikola Tesla. The Tesla Roadster uses an AC motor descended directly from Tesla's original 1882 design. The Tesla Roadster, the company's first vehicle, was the first production automobile to use lithium-ion battery cells and the first production EV with a range greater than 200 miles (320 km) per charge. Between 2008 and March 2012, Tesla sold more than 2,250 Roadsters in 31 countries. Tesla stopped taking orders for the Roadster in the U.S. market in August 2011. In December 2012, Tesla employed almost 3,000 full-time employees. By December 31, 2015, this number had grown to 13,058 employees.

Tesla unveiled the Tesla Model S all-electric sedan on March 26, 2009, and began deliveries in June 2012. First deliveries of the Model X began in September 2015. Global sales of the Model S passed the 100,000 unit milestone in December 2015, three years and a half after its introduction.The Tesla Model 3, the company's first

model aimed for the mass market, was unveiled in March 2016. One week after the unveiling event, global reservations totaled over 325,000 units, representing potential sales of over US$14 billion

Tesla Motors was incorporated in July 2003 by Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning who financed the company until the Series A round of funding.

Musk led the Series A round of investment in February 2004, joining Tesla's board of directors as its chairman as well as in operational roles. Musk was the controlling investor in Tesla from the first financing round, funding the large majority of the Series A capital investment round of US$7.5 million with personal funds. Tesla's primary goal was to commercialize electric vehicles, starting with a premium sports car aimed at early adopters and then moving as rapidly as possible into more mainstream vehicles, including sedans and affordable compacts.

From the beginning, Musk consistently maintained that Tesla's long-term strategic goal was to create affordable mass market electric vehicles.

Tesla Motors signed a production contract on July 11, 2005, with Group Lotus to produce "gliders" (complete cars minus powertrain). The contract ran through March 2011, but the two automakers extended the deal to keep the electric Roadster in production through December 2011 with a minimum number of 2,400 units.

Musk led Tesla Motors' Series B US$13 million investment round. Musk co-led the third, US$40 million round in May 2006. Tesla's third round included investment from prominent entrepreneurs including Google co-founders Sergey Brin & Larry Page. The fourth round in May 2007 added another US$45 million and brought the total investments to over US$105 million through private financing.

According to Musk, Tesla was forced to reduce the company workforce by about 10% to lower its burn rate, which was out of control in 2007. In May 2008, The Truth About Cars launched a "Tesla Death Watch", as Tesla needed another round of finance to survive. In October 2008, Musk became CEO and fired 25% of Tesla employees. Drori became vice-chairman, but then left the company in December. In December a fifth round added another US$40 million avoiding bankruptcy.

By January 2009, Tesla had raised US$187 million and delivered 147 cars. Musk had contributed US$70 million of his own money to the company. The prototype Model S was displayed at a press conference on March 26, 2009. On May 19, 2009, Germany's Daimler AG, maker of Mercedes-Benz, acquired an equity stake of less than 10% of Tesla for a reported US$50 million,in effect saving Tesla.

In June 2009 Tesla was approved to receive US$465 million in low-interest-bearing loans from the 2007 US$8 billion Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program by the United States Department of Energy. The funding came in 2010, and supported engineering and production of the Model S sedan, as well as the development of commercial powertrain technology. Tesla repaid the loan in May 2013 as the first of the automakers.

On June 29, 2010, Tesla Motors launched its initial public offering (IPO) on NASDAQ. 13,300,000 shares of common stock were issued to the public at a price of US$17.00 per share.The IPO raised US$226 million for the company. It was the first American car maker to go public since the Ford Motor Company had its IPO in 1956, and by 2014 Tesla had market value half that of Ford. Model S deliveries began in June 2012.

As of 2014, Tesla has a US Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) of 276 mpg.

Tesla makes its cars at the Tesla Factory in California. As a result of the high demand for Model 3, in May 2016 Tesla Motors announced its decision to advance its 500,000 total unit build plan (combined for Model S, Model X, and Model 3) to 2018, two years earlier than previously planned, in order to accelerate its target for Model 3 output. This in turn can allow more Model 3 buyers to benefit from the $7,500 tax credit before the limit of 200,000 cars per maker since 2010 reduces the credit.

Tesla has financed operations (production, development, administration, etc.) partly by sales income, stock offering and bond sales. The US authorities encourage production of non-polluting vehicles (electric or other) by legislating incentives for manufacturers, usually tax credits and ZEV credits from other manufacturers.In May 2013 Tesla raised $1.02 billion ($660m from bonds) partially to repay the DOE loans after their first profitable quarter, in February 2014 $2 billion from bonds (building GigaFactory), in August 2015 $738 million in stock (for the Model X), and in May 2016 $1.46 billion in stock ($1.26 billion for the Model 3).Tesla has raised over $4.5 billion since the IPO in 2010. As of January 29, 2016, Musk owns about 28.9 million Tesla shares, which equates to about 22% of the company. Tesla states that its automotive branch has a gross margin of 23.1% as of 2Q2016. However, expenditures for future operation are bigger than product profit, resulting in a net loss.

Tesla's strategy has been to emulate typical technological-product life cycles and initially enter the automotive market with an expensive, high-end product targeted at affluent buyers. As the company, its products, and consumer acceptance matured, it is moving into larger, more competitive markets at lower price points.The battery and electric drivetrain technology for each model would be developed and paid for through sales of the former models. The Roadster was low-volume, priced at US$109,000. Model S and X are mid-price and mid-volume; Model S had a base price of US$57,400. Model 3 is aimed at high-volume with a base price of US$35,000. This business strategy is very popular in the technology industry such as for cellular phones, laptop computers, and flat-screen televisions. According to a blog post by Musk, "New technology in any field takes a few versions to optimize before reaching the mass market, and in this case it is competing with 150 years and trillions of dollars spent on gasoline cars."

Tesla Motor's high degree of vertical integration (80% in 2016 according to Goldman Sachs) such as proprietary charging infrastructure is rare in the automotive industry, where companies typically focus on engine manufacturing and vehicle assembly.

Some of Tesla's stated goals are to increase the number and variety of electric vehicles (EVs) available to mainstream consumers by:

selling its own vehicles in company-owned showrooms and online;

selling powertrain components to other automakers

serving as a catalyst and positive example to other automakers

Tesla focuses on pure-electric propulsion technology, even for larger vehicles and ranges beyond 200 miles (320 km). Musk won the 2010 Automotive Executive of the Year Innovator Award for hastening the development of electric vehicles throughout the world.

Tesla aims to disrupt the automotive industry by bringing many innovative pieces which fit together to bring tremendous advantages; this strategy was called 'complex coordination' by Tesla investor Peter Thiel (see PayPal Mafia) .

Arnnon Geshuri, the Vice President of Human Resources since November 2009, has committed to bringing manufacturing jobs "back to California". In 2015, Geshuri led a hiring spree for Tesla about which he said; "In the last 14 months we've had 1.5 million applications from around the world. People want to work here." Geshuri also emphasizes hiring military veterans, saying "Veterans are a great source of talent for Tesla, and we're going after it."

On August 1, 2016, Tesla Motors Inc. publicly announced that it was purchasing SolarCity Corp. SolarCity is the largest installer of rooftop solar systems in the United States. Tesla will buy the company for $2.6 billion in stock. The purchase will be completed in the fourth quarter of 2016.

Tesla Motors operates more than 200 stores and galleries, 120 of which are outside the USA. It owns the stores and sells directly to customers via the internet and in non-US stores.

In August 2015, Tesla launched a revamp of its stores worldwide for the debut of its Model X. Stores will include interactive displays focused on four themes: safety, autopilot, charging network and the dual motors that power each axle.5

There are stores and galleries—usually located in shopping malls—in 22 US states and Washington DC. Customers cannot buy vehicles from stores, only from the Tesla Motors website. The stores serve as showrooms that allow people to learn about the company and its vehicles. Some galleries are located in states with restrictive dealership protection laws which prevent discussing price, financing, and test drives, as well as other restrictions.

Tesla's strategy of direct customer sales and owning stores and service centers is different from the standard dealership model in the US vehicle marketplace. Tesla Motors is the only automaker that sells cars directly to consumers; all other automakers use independently owned dealerships (partly due to earlier conflict), although some automakers provide online configuration and financing. 48 states have laws that limit or ban manufacturers from selling vehicles directly to consumers, and although Tesla has no independent dealerships, dealership associations in multiple states have filed numerous lawsuits against Tesla Motors, to prevent the company from selling cars. North Carolina and New Hampshire sided with Tesla, while Virginia and Texas sided with dealers.

Countries other than USA do not have such laws protecting car dealership. The Federal Trade Commission recommends allowing direct manufacturer sales, which analysts believe would save consumers 8% per purchase on average.The National Automobile Dealers Association states that franchises (such as offered by its members) offer better value for customers than direct sales.

Under a buyback program called Certified Pre-Owned (CPO) available in 37 US states, a Tesla Model S is sold with the right to return it to the company after three years for a reimbursement of 43% to 50% of its initial price. This reimbursement matches the trade-in values of German luxury cars of that age. In addition to maintaining a high resale value of its cars, Tesla Motors hopes to secure a supply of used cars to refurbish and re-sell with warranty. According to Automotive News, the profit margin on used car sales in the USA is about triple that on new cars, and because Tesla sells directly to consumers, it would collect resale profits. In May 2015, Tesla started selling refurbished Model S in the USA and within a month sold 1600 cars to buyers younger, less wealthy and a lower proportion of whom were from California than buyers of new Model S cars. As of July 2015, 269 used Model S were for sale in USA Tesla stores, with a four-year, 50,000-mile warranty. Used 3 year old Model S sell for about 62% of their original price.

As of September 2015, similar programs existed in Canada (in 3 locations), Austria (3 locations), Belgium (3), Denmark (2), France (3), Germany (6), Britain (3), Netherlands (4), Norway (5), Sweden (2) and Switzerland (5). The program ended in some countries in July 2016, but continued in others.

Tesla Motors builds electric powertrain components for vehicles from other automakers, including the lowest-priced car from Daimler, the Smart ForTwo electric drive, the Toyota RAV4 EV, and Freightliner's Custom Chassis Electric Van.

Unlike other automakers, Tesla does not use single-purpose, large battery cells, but thousands of small, cylindrical, lithium-ion 18650-like commodity cells used in laptops and other consumer electronics devices. It uses a version of these cells that is designed to be cheaper to manufacture and lighter than standard cells by removing some safety features. According to Tesla, these features are redundant because of the advanced thermal management system and a intumescent chemical in the battery to prevent fires. Panasonic is the only supplier of the battery cells for the car company, and cooperates with Tesla in the Gigafactory.

Tesla Motors may have the lowest costs for electric car batteries, estimated at US$200 per kWh.] Tesla indicated in 2016 that their battery pack costs less than $190/kWh. Argonne Labs estimates $163/kWh at 500,000 packs per year.Tesla charges US$400/kWh for the 85-kWh battery, US$10,000 more than the 60-kWh battery. At US$200/kWh, the battery in the 60-kWh Model S would cost US$12,000, while the 85-kWh battery would cost US$17,000. The price increase is closer to US$8,000, because supercharging is included in the higher price. Use of lifetime supercharging was a US$2,500 option for the early 40-kWh and 60-kWh versions of Model S.

Unlike the Tesla Roadster, whose battery is behind the seats, the Model S, 3 and X batteries are inside the floor. This saves interior space and trunk space but, together with the low ride of the Model S, increases risk of battery damage by debris or impact. To protect the battery, the Model S has 0.25 in (6 mm) aluminum-alloy armor plate. The battery's location allows quick battery swapping, which can take as little as 90 seconds in the Model S. Tesla's first and only battery swap station is located at Harris Ranch, California, and became operational in December 2014. Due to lack of customer interest, battery swapping will not expand. Straubel expects batteries to last 10-15 years, and discounts using electric cars to charge the grid (V2G) because battery wear outweighs economic benefit. He also prefers recycling over re-use for grid once batteries have reached the end of their useful car life. Since 2008, Tesla has worked with ToxCo/Kinsbursky to recycle worn out RoHS batteries, which will be an integral part of GigaFactory.

Tesla CEO Elon Musk announced in June 2014, that the company will allow its technology patents be used by anyone in good faith. Post-2014 agreements were expected to be executed that would include provisions whereby the recipients agree not to file patent suits against Tesla, or to copy its designs directly. Reasons expressed for this stance include attracting and motivating talented employees, as well as to accelerate the mass market advancement of electric cars for sustainable transport. "The unfortunate reality is, electric car programs (or programs for any vehicle that doesn't burn hydrocarbons) at the major manufacturers are small to non-existent, constituting an average of far less than 1% of their total vehicle sales," Musk said. Tesla will still hold other intellectual property, such as trademarks and trade secrets, which would help to prevent direct copying of its vehicles.

Beginning with vehicles manufactured in late September 2014, all new Model S are equipped with a camera mounted at the top of the windshield, forward looking radar (supplied by Bosch) in the lower grill and ultrasonic acoustic location sensors in the front and rear bumpers that provide a 360-degree buffer zone around the car. This equipment allows vehicles to detect road signs, lane markings, obstacles and other vehicles. In addition to adaptive cruise control and lane departure warning, a US$2,500 "Tech Package" option will allow this system to enable semi-autonomous drive (called Summon) and parking capabilities (called AutoPark).These features were activated via over-the-air software updates as of October 15, 2015. The technology was developed in partnership with the Israeli company Mobileye. In July 2016, Mobileye and Tesla ended their business relationship; the AutoPilot system as of version 8 uses the radar as the primary sensor instead of the camera.

General Motors' then-Vice chairman Robert Lutz said in 2007 that the Tesla Roadster inspired him to push GM to develop the Chevrolet Volt, a plug-in hybrid sedan. In an August 2009 edition of The New Yorker, Lutz was quoted as saying, "All the geniuses here at General Motors kept saying lithium-ion technology is 10 years away, and Toyota agreed with us—and boom, along comes Tesla. So I said, 'How come some tiny little California startup, run by guys who know nothing about the car business, can do this, and we can't?' That was the crowbar that helped break up the log jam." Tesla's success with the Model S sedan has pressured other luxury-car makers to enter the alternative-fuel market to "challenge Tesla"

As of 30 June 2016, Tesla Motors has sold over 139,000 electric cars worldwide since delivery of its first Tesla Roadster in 2008. The top selling car of Tesla's line-up is the Model S, with global sales of 129,412 units between June 2012 and June 2016, followed by the Model X with 7,250 units sold between September 2015 and June 2016, and the Roadster with about 2,450 units sold globally through December 2012. Tesla's fourth vehicle, the Model 3, is aimed for the mass market and retail deliveries are scheduled to begin by late 2017.

Tesla Motors' first production vehicle, the Tesla Roadster, was an all-electric sports car. The Roadster was the first highway-capable all-electric vehicle in serial production for sale in the United States in the modern era. The Roadster was also the first production automobile to use lithium-ion battery cells and first mass production battery electric vehicle to travel more than 200 miles (320 km) per charge.

Prototypes were introduced to the public in July 2006. The Tesla Roadster was featured on the cover of Time in December 2006 as the recipient of the magazine's "Best Inventions 2006—Transportation Invention" award.The first "Signature One Hundred" set of fully equipped Roadsters sold out in less than three weeks,the second hundred sold out by October 2007, and general production began on March 17, 2008.Since February 2008 two new models were introduced, one in July 2009, and another in July 2010.

In January 2010, Tesla began producing its first right-hand-drive Roadsters for the UK and Ireland, then began selling them in mid-2010 in Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong and Australia. Tesla produced the Roadster until early 2012, when its supply of Lotus Elise gliders ran out, as its contract with Lotus Cars for 2,500 gliders expired at the end of 2011. Tesla stopped taking orders for the Roadster in the U.S. market in August 2011. Featuring new options and enhanced features, the 2012 Tesla Roadster was sold in limited numbers only in Europe, Asia and Australia. The next generation is expected to be introduced in 2019, based on a shortened version of the platform developed for the Tesla Model S. Tesla sold more than 2,400 Roadsters in 31 countries through September 2012. Most of the remaining Roadsters were sold during the fourth quarter of 2012. The U.S. was the leading market with about 1,800 Roadsters sold.

The car had an average range of 245 miles (394 km) per charge according to Tesla. On October 27, 2009, the Roadster driven by Simon Hackett drove the entire 313-mile (504 km) segment of Australia's annual Global Green Challenge on a single charge, at an average speed of 25 mph (40 km/h). The Tesla Roadster can accelerate from zero to 60 mph (97 km/h) in under 4 seconds and has a top speed of 125 mph (201 km/h). The base price of the car is US$109,000 (€84,000 or GB£87,945).The Roadster Sport price started at US$128,500 in the United States and €112,000 (excluding VAT) in Europe. Deliveries began in July 2009. Motor Trend reported that the Roadster Sport recorded a 0–60 mph of 3.70 seconds and a quarter-mile test at 12.6 sec @ 102.6 mph (165.1 km/h), and stated "Tesla is the first maker to crack the EV legitimacy barrier in a century."

The Model S was announced in a press release on June 30, 2008.The sedan was originally code-named "Whitestar Retail deliveries began in the US on June 22, 2012.The first delivery of a Model S to a retail customer in Europe took place on August 7, 2013.Deliveries in China began on April 22, 2014.First deliveries of the right-hand-drive model destined for the UK, Australia, Hong Kong and Japan were made as scheduled in 2014.The Model S was to have three battery pack options for a range of up to 265 miles (426 km) per charge,but this was reduced to two, due to lack of demand for the shortest range vehicle. The United States Environmental Protection Agency range for the 85 kW·h battery pack model, the first trim launched in the United States market, is 265 mi (426 km),and 208 mi (335 km) for the model with the 60 kW·h battery.

In October 2014, Tesla announced the 85D and P85D dual-motor all-wheel drive variants of the Model S.The high-end P85D can accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) in 3.2 seconds and has a top speed of 155 miles per hour (249 km/h), compared to the Model P85's 130 miles per hour (210 km/h).The Model S 85D can cruise at 65 mph (105 km/h) for 295 miles (475 km) on a single charge, 10 miles (16 km) more than the Model S 85.The control system shifts power between the motors, so that each always operates at its most efficient point.

In April 2015, Tesla Motors announced a new 70D to replace the 60. The 70D includes the Supercharger option and is rated at 240 miles (386 km) on a charge.In July 2015, Tesla announced the 90 kW-h model, with 90, 90D, and P90D batteries. A higher-performance motor would be available, with Ludicrous Mode, giving the top-of-the-line variant 762 hp and a 1.1g acceleration.In August 2016, Telsa introduced the P100D to be the new top model, replacing the P90D. The P100D model has a 100kWh battery, a 0-60 mph time of 2.5 seconds and over 300 miles of range.

In April 2016, Tesla updated the design of the Model S to look more like the Model X and made Model S 70, 70D, 75, 75D, 90 and 90D versions available. 70 and 70D Model S owners have the option to unlock the 75 kWh capacity via a software update, adding up to 19 miles per charge.The 60 and 60D, reintroduced in June 2016, owners have a US$9,000 anytime option to unlock the full 75 kWh capacity via a software update.

A total of 2,650 Model S cars were sold in North America during 2012, mostly in the United States. Sales in Europe and North America totaled 22,477 units in 2013.In 2013, the Model S was the top-selling full-size luxury sedan in the US, ahead of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (13,303) which was top-selling in the category in 2012, and also surpassing the BMW 7 Series (10,932), Lexus LS (10,727), Audi A8 (6,300) and Porsche Panamera (5,421).During 2014, a total of 31,655 units were delivered worldwide.The Model S ranked as the world's second best-selling plug-in electric vehicle after the Nissan Leaf in 2014.

Model S sales in the American market reached the 50,000 unit milestone in July 2015. Global Model S sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in December 2015, three years and a half after its introduction.The Model S, with total global sales of 50,446 units, was the world's best selling plug-in electric vehicle in 2015, up from second best in 2014.The Model S also ranked as the top selling plug-in electric car in the U.S. in 2015.In addition, the Model S topped the Western European luxury car segment in 2015 with 15,787 units sold, ahead of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (14,990), the segment's leader in previous years.Sales during the first half of 2016 totalled 22,184 units.As of June 2016, the Model S, with a more than 129,000 units sold worldwide since its introduction, ranks as the world's all-time second best selling plug-in car after the Nissan Leaf (about 225,000).

The United States is the world's leading Model S market with about 75,000 units sold up until June 2016.Norway is the Model S largest overseas market,with 10,065 new units registered through December 2015 .The Tesla Model S became the first electric car ever to top the monthly sales ranking in any country, when the electric car achieved the first place in the Norwegian new car sales list in September 2013. The Model S captured a market share of 5.1% of all new car sales that month.In December 2013, and with a 4.9% market share, the Model S topped one more time the best selling new car list in Norway.In March 2014 Tesla Model S became the best-ever selling car for over a period of one month in Norway, with a 10.8% market share of all new cars registered in the country.That month, the Tesla Model S also broke the 28-year-old record for monthly sales of a single model regardless of its power source, with 1,493 units sold, surpassing the Ford Sierra, which sold 1,454 units in May 1986.

Tesla manufactures the Model S in Fremont, California, in an assembly plant formerly operated by NUMMI, a defunct joint venture of Toyota and General Motors, now called Tesla Factory. Tesla purchased a stake in the site in May 2010 for US$42 million,and opened the facility in October 2010.For the European market, Tesla assembles and distributes the Model S from its European Distribution Center in Tilburg, the Netherlands. Tesla chose Tilburg because of its location near the port of Rotterdam, where Models S components arrive from the U.S. The center also serves as a workshop and spare parts warehouse. Cars are built and tested in Fremont. Then, the battery pack, the electric motor and parts are disassembled and shipped separately to Tilburg, where the cars are reassembled.

In November 2014 Tesla Motors announced the completion of upgrades to its Fremont, California factory. The factory shut down for two weeks in late summer to complete modifications to handle the addition of the all-wheel drive Dual Motor Model S. The upgrades will help the company raise production by 50 percent in 2015.

Among other awards, the Model S won the 2013 "Motor Trend Car of the Year", the 2013 "World Green Car",Automobile Magazine's 2013 "Car of the Year",and Time Magazine Best 25 Inventions of the Year 2012 award.In June 2015, three years after the Model S introduction and with almost 75,000 Model S sedans delivered worldwide, Tesla announced that Model S owners have accumulated over 1 billion electric miles (1.6 billion km) travelled.The Tesla Model S is the first plug-in electric vehicle fleet to reach the 1 billion electric miles milestone. In October 2014 General Motors reported that Volt owners had accumulated a total of 629 million all-electric miles (over 1 billion kilometers) traveled; while Nissan reported in December 2014 that Leaf owners had traveled 625 million miles (1 billion kilometers).

The Tesla Model X is a full-size crossover SUV. Unveiled in February 2012,Model X deliveries started in September 2015.

More than a thousand people attended the 2012 unveiling, at which Musk said the car would enter production in 2013.In February 2013, Tesla announced that production had been rescheduled to begin by late 2014 in order to focus "on a commitment to bring profitability to the company in 2013" and to achieve their production target of 20,000 Model S cars in 2013.The company began taking reservations for the vehicle in 2013 and said that deliveries would begin in 2014.

In November 2013, Tesla confirmed the company expected to deliver the Model X in small numbers by end of 2014, with high volume production planned for the second quarter of 2015.However, Tesla announced in February 2014 that in order to focus on overseas roll outs of the Model S during 2014, it expected to have production design Model X prototypes in late 2014, and begin high-volume deliveries for retail customers in the second quarter of 2015.In November 2014 Tesla again delayed the start of deliveries till the third quarter of 2015.In August 2015, user groups estimated around 30,000 X pre-orders, compared to 12,000 for the S.

Deliveries of the Model X Signature series began on September 29, 2015. Pricing for the premium special version of the Model X varies between US$132,000 and US$144,000.Model X sales totaled 2,400 units during the first quarter of 2016. According to Tesla Motors, deliveries were lower than expected because production was impacted by severe Model X supplier parts shortages in the first two months of 2016.Sales during the second quarter of 2016 totaled 4,638 units. Although Tesla's production was up 20% from the previous quarter, the number of vehicles in transit at the end of June 2016 was much higher than expected (5,150 including Model S cars), representing 35.8% of the number of cars delivered in the quarter (14,402 vehicles including the Model S).More than 7,000 Model X vehicles have been sold by the end of June 2016.

The Model 3 (stylized as "☰")was previously called the Model E, and was codenamed Tesla BlueStar in the original business plan.The current name was announced on Twitter on July 16, 2014.The all-electric car will have a range of at least 215 miles (350 km). First deliveries are expected in the US after late 2017 and full production in 2018, but CEO Elon Musk has said full production to fulfill expected demand could take up to 2020.

On March 31, 2016, Tesla unveiled its Model 3 for an invited audience via a live stream on Tesla's website.Potential customers were first able to reserve spots in the queue at Tesla stores on March 31 with a refundable deposit of US$1,000.Tens of thousands of people were reported waiting in lines to reserve their spot.During the Model 3 unveiling event, it was revealed that over 115,000 people had reserved the Model 3 prior to the event.As of April 7, 2016, one week after the unveiling, Tesla Motors reported over 325,000 reservations, more than triple the 107,000 Model S cars sold by the end of 2015.These reservations represent potential sales of over US$14 billion.According to Tesla’s global vice-president Robin Ren, China is the second largest market for the Model 3 after the US.Tesla reported net reservations totaled about 373,000 as of 15 May 2016, after about 8,000 cancellations by customers and about 4,200 cancellations by Tesla of reservations that appeared to be duplicates from speculators.

Tesla Motors claims "this the single biggest one-week launch of any product ever."According to Bloomberg News, "the Model 3's unveiling was unique in the 100-year history of the mass-market automobile." Bloomberg reported that while the 1955 Citroën DS took in 80,000 deposits over 10-days at the Paris Auto Show, the Model 3 took 232,000 reservations in two days. In another comparison, the original iPhone had 270,000 sales and reservations also in two days.

During the event, Tesla Motors announced that the Model 3 will be priced starting at US$35,000 before any applicable government incentives. However, with options, CEO Elon Musk predicted that the average sales price will approach US$42,000.Musk also stated that all Model 3s will support supercharging.Tesla also announced plans to make Model 3 available in several new markets including India, Brazil, South Africa, South Korea, New Zealand, Singapore, and Ireland.

The company plans for the Model 3 are part of Tesla's three step strategy to start at high price and move progressively towards lower cost, where the battery and electric drivetrain technology would be developed and paid for through sales of the Tesla Roadster and Tesla Model S vehicles.Whereas the Roadster used carbon fiber and the Model S and X use aluminum for the body, the composition of the Model 3 is unknown as of March 2016. Some expect it to use steel (for cost reasons), while others in connection with the Model 3 note that the Tesla factory in March 2016 has a new aluminum stamping press with a 10 to 20-fold increase in capacity.Musk has said that Tesla will need to sell 500,000 cars per year (mostly Model 3) to become profitable.According to Tesla's CTO, JB Straubel, in October 2015 most Tesla engineers were working on the 3 rather than S or X. The design was finished in July 2016.

Future Tesla Motors cars may enhance autonomous driving. In 2014, CEO Elon Musk predicted fully autonomous driving technology might be ready within 6 years, but "it will take several more years for governments to work out the industry guidelines for wide embrace of the innovation".

Other vehicle categories have been presaged. In June 2009, Tesla announced plans for electric minivans, crossover SUVs and electric fleet vans for municipal governments.In 2010, Tesla articulated ideas besides the Model X crossover: a utility van and cabriolet were discussed that, if built, would be based on the second-generation platform like Model S.Besides the third-generation platform to be used in Model 3, the possibility of a truck was discussed in 2012.In July 2015, it was announced that a successor to the Roadster would debut in 2019.In October 2015, Musk revealed a future 'Model Y' that would be a Model 3/Model X-like cheaper crossover utility vehicle with falcon-wing doors,and Tesla trademarked the name "Model Y" in 2013.Musk hopes to produce a car cheaper than the Model 3, to be affordable for everyone

There will be future cars that will be even more affordable down the road . . . With fourth generation and smaller cars and what not, we’ll ultimately be in a position where everyone can afford the car.

— Elon Musk at the Future Transport Solutions conference in Oslo, April 21, 2016

Musk wanted the first three models to spell S-E-X but settled with "S3X" since Ford owns the trademark to "Model E". However, the digit "3" will be stylized like three horizontal bars, making it indistuingishable from the "E" in Tesla's logo.After the Model Y is released, the four models will spell "S3XY".

Future models may also reach a 500 miles (800 km) range, partially because of a new patented battery system, pairing metal-air and lithium-ion batteries.

On July 20, 2016, Musk detailed his master plan for Tesla that has been in the works for 10 years. It includes the manufacturing of more affordable cars produced in higher volume, solar power roofs, mid-size vehicles, SUV’s and pickup trucks, as well as the refinement of autonomous vehicles and the creation of a sharing economy — in which, cars can be requested and driven while the owner is not using them.A Tesla Minibus would be built on the Model X platform.

Read More